Definition of matter
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Scientific Definition of Matter: Atoms, Mass, and Energy
Matter is commonly defined as anything that has mass and takes up space. This includes everything we see, touch, and interact with in the physical world, from the smallest particles to the largest objects Cottrell2019Wang2025Miller2020. At its most basic level, matter is made up of atoms, which themselves consist of a nucleus (containing protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons. Protons and neutrons are further made up of even smaller particles called quarks, while electrons and quarks are considered fundamental particles, meaning they are not made from anything smaller .
Matter also has energy, and there is a minimum energy requirement for something to be considered matter. Matter tends to interact with other matter to reach a state of minimum energy, which explains why matter moves and forms systems .
Everyday and Historical Perspectives on Matter
In everyday terms, matter is described as anything that we eat, drink, perceive, and that occupies space . This simple definition has been used for centuries and is still widely accepted. Historically, the study of matter has evolved from early philosophical and alchemical ideas to modern scientific understanding, with significant contributions from both Western and Eastern traditions Aydin2018Tressoldi2021.
Matter in Philosophy: Objective Reality and Perception
Philosophers have long debated the nature of matter. Some, like John Locke, defined matter as an abstraction from the forms we know, while others, such as Lenin, argued that matter is objective reality that exists independently of our senses, even if it is perceived through them Antonov2023Antonov2021. These philosophical discussions highlight the ongoing debate about whether matter is simply what we perceive or if it exists independently of perception.
Matter in Chemistry: Elements and Compounds
In chemistry, matter is anything that has mass and occupies space, and it is made up of chemical substances. These substances can be elements (pure substances made of one type of atom) or compounds (substances made from two or more types of atoms bonded together) . There are 92 naturally occurring elements, which can combine in countless ways to form the diverse materials we encounter .
States of Matter: Solids, Liquids, and More
Matter exists in different states, such as solids, liquids, and gases. Solids retain their shape, while liquids take the shape of their container. These properties are used to distinguish between different states of matter, though there are exceptions and complexities in these definitions .
Conclusion
Matter is fundamentally defined as anything that has mass and occupies space, made up of atoms and subatomic particles, and possessing energy Cottrell2019Wang2025Miller2020. This definition is supported by both scientific and philosophical perspectives, though debates continue about the deeper nature of matter and its relationship to perception and consciousness Antonov2023Tressoldi2021Antonov2021. The concept of matter remains central to our understanding of the physical world, from the smallest particles to the largest structures.
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Toward a Definition of the Matter in Philosophy
The definition of matter in philosophy is based on John Locke's method of general notions, and while it is a sensually existing concept, it is not a fully general concept, as it only takes into account the most general concepts that appear first.
Does it matter to define what is matter? A primer for materialists and beyond
This paper explores the foundations of materialism and realism and suggests Consciousness as the basic stuff of all that exists, challenging the foundations of Materialism and Realism.
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